Ethical theories aim to address what makes something ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. The main theories include: consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics. Consequentialism In consequentialism, the right action leads to the best consequence or result (ends not means). It can be subdivided into utilitarianism (best consequence for everyone affected) and egoistic consequentialism (best consequence only for the individual). There is also altruistic consequentialism (considers everyone except the individual). … Continue reading Ethical theories

Euthanasia is the action of intentionally ending an individual’s life to relieve their suffering. Consequentialist considerations Egoism A person’s continued existence may bring them more pain than pleasure. However, some argue that given proper expert care, few truly die in pain and distress. Legalising euthanasia may normalise it in a way that ill people feel obliged to ask for euthanasia even if they do not … Continue reading Euthanasia

Bacteria can directly secrete protein toxins (exotoxins) and effectors that damage and/or allow invasion of host cells. In doing so, they aid virulence by allowing injuring host tissue and harming (e.g. by killing macrophages) or deflecting the immune system (e.g by a super-antigen response), which can help infection to spread. Protein toxins are broadly divided into cytolysins and intracellular enzymatic toxins that act on different … Continue reading Bacterial protein toxins & effectors

There are five layers to the scalp: Skin Connective tissue (vascular) Aponeurosis Loose connective tissue Periosteum The superficial three layers are tightly bound so that the scalp slides over the cranium only because of the underlying layer of loose areolar connective tissue. CLINICAL CORNER: SCALP WOUNDS The dense fibrous subcutaneous tissue tends to hold the walls of superficial blood vessels open when cut, so scalp … Continue reading Scalp

Arteries These arteries run between the aponeurosis and skin and anastomose with each other. The scalp is supplied by branches of the external and internal carotid arteries. ECA: superficial temporal, posterior auricular, occipital arteries ICA: supraorbital, supratrochlear arteries Nerves Cutaneous nerves follow the blood vessels. The scalp is supplied: posteriorly by the greater occipital and third (least) occipital nerves, branches of the posterior rami of … Continue reading Scalp arteries & nerves