Ethical theories aim to address what makes something ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. The main theories include: consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics.

Consequentialism

In consequentialism, the right action leads to the best consequence or result (ends not means). It can be subdivided into utilitarianism (best consequence for everyone affected) and egoistic consequentialism (best consequence only for the individual). There is also altruistic consequentialism (considers everyone except the individual). This raises the question of whether one should prioritise the group over the individual or vice versa (see communitarianism below).

Deontology

In deontology, actions should follow certain moral rules (e.g. the categorical imperative in Kantian ethics). If the method is moral, it may not matter what the result is (means not ends). There is a rights-based vs duty-based approach in deontology. However, rights and duty are interlinked. For example, the right for patients to be treated implies the duty for doctors to treat patients.

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on the traits (e.g. courage, honesty, modesty) of an individual rather than their actions. A virtuous individual would perform ethical actions. Different philosophers have proposed different virtuous traits. Socrates argued that knowledge is virtue (implying only one virtuous trait) while Plato prosed the Four cardinal virtues. Aristotle proposed around eighteen traits, classified as either intellectual or moral, for which virtuous individuals should not be deficient or excessive in (e.g. deficient courage is cowardice while excessive courage is rashness).

Advantages and disadvantages

Ethical theory	Advantages	Disadvantages
Consequentialism	Clear in principle and able to be objectively calculated (in theory). Can be even handed (utilitarianism).	The “best consequence” is unclear and may not be quantifiable. May be impossible to predict consequences. Can be unjust and ignore an individual’s rights.
Deontology	Often consistent with common sense. May be more fair to individuals and can provide a moral basis for human rights.	Inflexible and can be hard to apply to morally grey areas. Unclear how competing rights or duties should be resolved.
Virtue ethics	Emphasises the role of moral judgement. Motivates individuals to work on morality. Accounts for emotional considerations and complexities of ethical decisions.	Unclear which traits are virtuous. Difficult to apply and does not explain the action individuals should take in a given ethical dilemma.

Other theories

Other theories exist that provide different considerations or contain some combination of the above theories, including:

• Communitarianism: Considers ethics more on a community rather than an individual level. Individuals have a responsibility to the community, whose interest should be prioritised.
• Feminist ethics: Explores that traditional ethical theories undervalue the female moral experience. Carol Gilligan proposed the ethics of care in which a female perspective of ethics focuses more on relationships and caring instead of a more masculine view that ethics should follow rigid logic or principles.
• Narrative ethics: Ethical situations should be considered in relation to the story of relevant individuals or communities.
• Situational ethics: Each situation is different and it is important to understand the context of an action.